USING THE WEB FOR
USING THE WEB FOR INTERACTIVE
TEACHING AND LEARNING
The Imperative for the New Millennium
A White Paper by Pat Brogan
Using The Web For Interactive Teaching and Learning
Table of Contents
Meeting the Needs of Changing Society 1
The Changing Role of Education 1
Educational Outcomes Are Under Pressure 3
New Theories of Learning 5
The Constructionist View of Teaching and Learning 8
Teaching and Learning As Systems 9
The Role of Technology in Education 12
Computers and Learning Background 13
Computer-Based Instruction 15
Technology’s Role in Teaching and Learning Systems 15
Improvements in Productivity and Academic Results 16
The Effectiveness of Educational Technology 17
Online Learning and Teaching 17
Distance Learning 19
Distance Learning Research 20
Critical Success Factors for Distance Learning 21
Profiling Students for Success 22
Best Practices for Technology Implementation 22
Instructional Design Elements for Online Learning 23
The Benefits of Online Teaching and Learning 24
A Starting Point: Using Technology to Share Knowledge 26
Standards: Providing a Platform for Interoperability 28
Start Now! 30
The Macromedia Solutions 31
The Future 33
Bibliography 34
Meeting the Needs of Changing Society
Changes are taking place in the U.S. society at an exponential rate.
Traditional expansion of the U.S. economy was based on capital investments
that were made to build and automate factories. In recent times, the
white-collar work force increased by about 3x the rate of increase of the
blue-collar work force. The output of the U.S. economy shifted from capital
output to the services sector. Robert Reich, former secretary of Labor
and author of “The Work of Nations” describes the changes in the economy
as moving from an agrarian economy, to a mass production economy
and then to an economy where:
America’s core corporation no longer plans and implements the
production of a large volume of goods and services, it no longer
owns or invests in a vast array of factories, machinery, laboratories,
warehouses and other tangible assets; it no longer employs armies of
production workers and middle level managers, it no longer serves
as gateway to the American middle class. In fact, the core
corporation is no longer even American. It is, increasingly, a façade,
behind which teams an array of decentralized groups and
subgroups continuously contracting with similarly diffuse working
units all over the world. …the firms that are surviving and
succeeding are shifting from high volume to high value.
Reich points out that nearly 80 percent of the new jobs created in the
1980s were in services, and that some 70 percent of private sector employees
now work in service businesses. Between 1975 and 1990,America’s
500 largest industrial companies failed to create new jobs and their share
of the civilian work force dropped from 17% to 10%.The shift in jobs for
knowledge workers coincided with the advent of major technology adoption.
By 1994, over half the workers were using computers. It is questionable
which was the catalyst: the availability of the technology or the
change in work roles.
Reich describes three types of occupations for the future: those focused on
routine production, in-person service providers and what he calls symbolic
analysts, or knowledge workers. In 1980, the pay difference between someone
with a college degree and someone with only a high school education
was 50%. In 1998, the difference was 111% and increasing.The majority of
these jobs require Knowledge Workers.
The Changing Role of Education
The education system has been under a considerable amount of scrutiny
and received its share of criticisms. Our educational systems were architected
to deal with survival in a mechanistic society,where we taught people
to follow instructions—and work on farms or in factories. Work in the
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Today’s economy is based
on services not traditional
factory production.
The newly created jobs
require “Knowledge
Workers.”
In 2000, skilled jobs will
constitute 65% of the jobs,
a dramatic increase from
20% in 1950.
College grads now earn
111% more than noncollege
grads.
home was far more consuming and required a commitment to managing
aspects of family life that are quite different from those of today.The roles
of women and men evolved over periods of time with the life styles dictating
some of the work differences. But society has only recently offered
extended educational opportunities, such as a more in-depth variety of
graduate educational offerings and new associate degree offerings.We still
study language arts, history, geography, and sciences with little substantial
pedagogical changes. Schools have adapted with some electives, such as
changing from offering typing courses to computer courses.
The school based on the factory model doesn’t prepare students because
the relevant skills and attributes that students need to be successful in this
century and the next are not being addressed. Overly (in Caine&Caine,
1994 p. 15) describes the need for change:
As practiced, schooling is a poor facilitator of learning. Its persistent
view of learning as product interferes with significant learning connected
to such complex processes as inquiry and appreciation.What
often passes for education is noise that interrupts the natural flow of
learning. Schooling too often fragments learning into subject areas,
substitutes control for the natural desire to learn, co-opts na-turally
active children for hours in assembly line classroom struct-tures, and
ignores both individual and cultural differences...The
formal education system often destroys opportunities for learning
from elders, from each other and from the new generation.
Schools are having difficulty developing the requisite mastery in students
of the essential autonomous learning skills—the range of strategies, procedures,
and techniques that successful learners use inside the classroom,
while being instructed in traditional settings, and outside the classroom as
they learn from printed materials to search databases, write reports,work
on homework assignments, or study for tests. Some of these skills require
cognitive development: students need to learn on their own, students need
to integrate new knowledge into existing knowledge structures, and to
transfer the new knowledge structures to problem-solving in different situations.
The development of autonomous learning skills is the major challenge facing
higher education, because a student’s success in college, and in the
new knowledge economy, hinges in large measure, on the ability to master
new knowledge outside the security of the classroom.Teaching individuals
how to learn is the challenge faced by the nation as a whole as we negotiate
the difficult, momentous transition from the Industrial Age to the
Knowledge Age (Gifford, 1993).
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Educational Institutions
must respond to the needs
of the Knowledge Economy.
The bottom line is that students
want an education
that serves their needs. For
many that means an education
that is convenient,
accessible and most importantly,
relevant.
Merrill Lynch, in their publication “The Book of Knowledge” (1999) summarizes
the changes in the educational environment in Table 1.
Old Economy New Economy
Four year degree Forty-year degree
Training as a cost center Training as #1 source of competitive advantage
Distance education Distributed learning
Correspondence & video High-tech multimedia centers
One size fits all Tailored programs
Geographic institutions Brand name universities & celebrity professors
Just in case Just in time
Isolated Virtual Learning communities
Table 1: Comparison of Education Trends in the “Old” and “New” Economies,
Source: Merrill Lynch, 1999
Educational Outcomes Are Under Pressure
There has been a significant gap in the desired educational outcomes in
society today, and the achievement results. In the widely publicized 1995
Gallup Poll, parents expressed their dissatisfaction with the content and
form of education their children are receiving, with 71% of American’s
grading the nation’s schools a C,D, or F (Lehman, 1997). Student achievement
in basic reading, writing and mathematics in the United States has
deteriorated over the past decade, putting the United States far behind
other nations in student skills mastery measurements.The problem effects
all segments of the economy—businesses can not hire employees with the
requisite skills thus requiring colleges to focus efforts on remediation
rather than teaching new skills.The competitiveness of our nation is put at
risk in a competitive global environment if our education system is judged
inferior.
Data shows that 41% of students today entering college need some form of
remedial education.These students typically take at least three courses, and
may take a specific course three or four times.The National Center for Education
Studies (NCES), part of the U.S. Department of Education, reports
that the percentage of freshmen enrolled in remedial courses changed little
between 1989 and 1995. In math, data shows that only 6% of eleventh
graders can solve multi-step math problems or use basic algebra. Other
data show that over 20% of employees being hired by corporations today
lack basic reading and math skills.
The most recent estimates of remediation costs suggest that remediation
costs ,billion annually, though the recent report on remediation from Institute
for Higher Education indicates that the number is grossly understated,
and estimates it to be at least double the ,billion figure (NCES, 1998).
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The Wingspread Group, (1993, p.13) an education industry organization
writes:
The sad fact is that the campuses spend far more time and money
establishing the credentials of the applicants than they do of assesssing
the knowledge, skills and competencies of their graduates. Indeed,
the entire system is skewed in favor of the input side of the
learning equation: credit hours, library collections, percentage of
faculty with terminal degrees and the like. The output side of the
equation--student achievement--requires much greater attention than
it now receives. That attention should begin by establishing improved
measures of student achievement, measures that are credible
and valued by friends and supporters of education, by testing and
accrediting bodies, and by educational institutions themselves.
In today’s knowledge-based economy, society needs people who can think
critically and strategically to solve problems. Individuals must learn in a
rapidly changing environment, and build knowledge taken from new
sources and different perspectives.Today we must understand systems in
diverse contexts, and collaborate locally and around the globe using new
tools like the Internet (Reich, 1995; Merrill Lynch, 1999).These attributes
of learning contrast sharply with the low-level skills, content, and assessment
methods that traditional ways of learning favor. Belief that learning
takes place predominantly in the classroom and predominantly in children
is obsolete (Knowles, 1975, 1984; Cross, 1998).
Knowles’ (Knowles, 1984) work on how adults learn “andragogy” (as different
from pedagogy—referring to childrens’ learning) has evoked new discussions
about how and why people learn, along with challenging assumptions
that adults’ brains are not able to learn continually throughout life.
Andragogy makes the following assumptions about the design of learning:
(1) adults need to know why they need to learn something, (2) adults need
to learn experientially, (3) adults approach learning as problem-solving, and
(4) adults learn best when the topic is of immediate value.
In practical terms, andragogy means that instruction for adults needs to
focus more on the process and less on the content being taught. Strategies
using tools like case studies, role-playing, simulations, and self-evaluation
are recommended. Instructors adopt a role of facilitator or coach, rather
than lecturer or grader.
One problem is that most colleges are set up for the 18 to 22 year old students—
classes during the day, semesters and quarters starting two or three
times a year, and dormitories, no parking and programs that are now irrelevant
for over 50% of the students.The number of students over 25 has doubled
in the past twenty-five years (Merrill Lynch, 1999).
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Technology can “democratize”
education—bringing
instruction to people where
and when they need it.
50% of post-secondary
students are working
adults—over 6.1 million
“students.”
Traditional views of people’s intelligence and capacity to learn are being
challenged.This provides us with a great opportuity to rethink how we
can deliver new forms of instruction by meeting the needs of a changing
society.Technology can play a key role in delivering new instructional content,
as well as new methods to reach those who must teach and learn.
New Theories of Learning
As we look at the changing needs of learners, it is important to track the
recent changes that have taken place in the learning theory domain.The
behaviorists’ views of learning as a product of controlled stimulus and
rewards has given way to a new view of cognitive and affective factors
which contribute to the overall learning process.There are new insights
into understanding how people learn in general, gender differences in
learning approaches, and how women and men learn with technology, and
the role attitudes and other affective factors play in the overall learning
environment.
In the cognitive area, new research on brain functions, as well as differences
in brain functionality by gender inform us of new implications in
teaching and learning. Different views on the definition of intelligence
have recently been posited by Sternberg, (1996); Goleman, (1996), Coles,
(1997) and Gardner, (1999). Sternberg (1996) challenges the traditional
paper and pencil approaches to measuring intelligence, finding that the
traditional intelligence tests does not measure “practical ability,” a person’s
ability to adapt to diverse conditions, and “creative intelligence.” Goleman
(1996) has identified “emotional intelligence” as an ability to read the signals
of others which is an intelligence he describes as needed to be a suc-
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Not all people learn the
same way or have the same
capacity for learning.
New forms of intelligence
need to be addressed in
instruction and assessment.
Adult Students Represent Nearly 50% of the Student Body
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
25 and Older 24 and Younger
1970 1995
28%
43%
72%
57%
cessful leader. Coles (1997) describes “moral intelligence” suggesting that
we should value character over intellect. Other forms of intelligence
described include leadership intelligence, executive intelligence and financial
intelligence (Gardner, 1999).
Gardner, (Gardner, 1983, 1989, 1993) founder of Project Zero at Harvard
University has done considerable research challenging traditional views of
intelligence. Gardner’s (1983) theories of multiple intelligences presents a
different view of learning differences, and the role that nature plays in creating
a biological preference. Gardner’s model of multiple intelligences has
had an impact on learning and teaching, and especially on curriculum
development (Chapman, 1993;Armstrong, 1994; Eisner, 1994; Maker, et. al.,
1994; Gray and Viens, 1994).The notion of multiple intelligences essentially
transforms the linear ranking of individuals on a single scale of abilities
that characterizes traditional IQ testing to a more complex and multidimensional
portrait of the specific strengths and weaknesses of individuals.
Gardner identifies the following “intelligences”:
• Musical
• Logical-mathematical
• Naturalistic
• Bodily kinesthetic
• Linguistic
• Spatial
• Interpersonal
• Intrapersonal
The implications for curriculum development and instruction are profound,
since it becomes clear that individuals with different intelligence
profiles will learn in different ways. Individuals should be encouraged to
use their natural intelligences in learning, and teachers should attempt to
understand students’ natural inclinations and position instructional activities
to appeal to different forms of intelligence. Gardner suggests that
assessment of learning should measure multiple forms of intelligence.
While there is agreement on this in concept, it will prove to be difficult to
implement.
Research on affective factors—attitudes and emotions and their contribution
to learning outcomes has shed new light on their role influencing
learning outcomes, playing an important role in shaping the learning experience.
Anxiety has been shown to impair performance in a wide range of
cognitive functions including attention, memory, concept formation and
problem solving (Sieber et al., 1977; Spielberger, 1966).There is an interaction
with task difficulty; anxiety results in poorer performance in complex
tasks but may improve performance on very simple tasks.Anxiety can be
dealt with constructively or unconstructively.
Confidence plays a significant role in creating a motivated learner. Confidence
can be built by creating the “aha” moments, where discovery of a
pattern, an answer or a relationship comes together.This allows the student
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Attitudes play an important
role in shaping teaching
and learning.
to experience “felt meaning.” Bruner (1967, p.20) calls this “test by affective
congruence.” It is the integration of the learned material into the knowledge
construct that provides for the deeper level of knowledge to occur. It
is the quest for understanding that helps the student build this into their
construct. People access passion when deep meanings are engaged (Caine
& Caine, 1994). Building confidence which builds motivation should be a
primary goal.
The implications of social aspects of learning have been explored in
research, and present an opportunity to learn how to better manage successful
outcomes using this knowledge.A newer concept is the view of the
brain as a social being (Gazzaniga, 1985).This is important in understanding
that learning can be optimized when learning takes place with others.
The model that assumes the teacher is the information giver and the student
a passive recipient is being challenged, as new beliefs in learning
through collaborative experiences and “doing” are being tested (Cross,
1998).
This collaborative view supports the belief that learning is a continual construction
project.This model moves past the information-processing model
of learning. People have a finite capacity of short-term memory, and longterm
memory depends on the processing and working of short-term memory.
Much information is processed unconsciously.The consequences are
that our focus becomes a tool and it needs to be nurtured and developed.
The learner uses the brain system to talk, listen, read, view, act and create
values. Creating learning environments that engage these different aspects
of the brain as part of the learning process will result in a more complete
learning experience.The opportunity to build new collaborative learning
environments is warranted based on the research that shows that students
actually learn better while doing, and learn more when they are actively
engaged in their learning.Technology can play a key role in facilitating collaboration.
Another area receiving focus is the research on learning styles. Dunn,
(1999) shows that individuals have a different preference for how they
learn, and that when they are introduced to material which is presented in
their preferred learning style, students perform better. Much of the research
on reading styles and learning and creative/perceptual styles was
built upon research with a left/right brain theoretical foundation. Preferences
affecting learning styles are expressed in the basis of moods, sleeping
needs, creative peak times, sensory diversity, developmental factors, physical
health, etc. (Caine & Caine, 1994).The knowledge that different people
learn differently is important to factor into the creation of teaching and
learning environments. In the typical classroom model, it is difficult for
teachers to accommodate different approaches to learning.
New information about biological learning differences has created additional
awareness of the needs of individuals, and has put tremendous pressure
on the institutions to find funding to provide equitable education.With as
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Students learn more when
they collaborate with others.
many as 20% of the students having brain-based learning differences like
attention deficit disorder (ADD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD), autism and other differences, new models where instruction can
be personalized to meet the learners’ needs is available today through technology.
One example is the Scientific Learning program, Fast ForWord®
(http://www.fastforward.com).With over 8 million students having difficulty
learning to read, and another 8 million more who are poor readers, technology
now offers a form of help never previously available. Fast ForWord
is a revolutionary language training program which improves language
skills by combining progressive computer based technology with breakthroughs
in neuroscience.The training focuses on improving phonological
and receptive auditory skills—a unique approach that moves well beyond
addressing the symptoms of language problems, and directly attacks the
root cause.The success that has been achieved in the past five years with
programs like this provides a tremendous opportunity to help people who
might have been lost in the past. Research shows that many students with
learning and behavioral disorders who don’t get help end up in jail, on the
streets, and frequently live shorter lives.
The Constructionist View of Teaching and Learning
In the second half of the twentieth century, the most popular approach to
teaching and learning has been associated with the constructivists’ theory.
This dominant contemporary theory is built upon work done by Piaget,
Vygotsky, and Seymour Papert. In the constructivist’s view, the learner is an
active organism within the environment, not just responding to stimuli, but
engaging, grappling, seeking to make sense of things. Knowledge is generated
internally, not absorbed from an external source. Constructivists view
motivation as intrinsic, not a product of the behaviorist’s rewards and punishments
system.
This constructivist view calls for a focus on structured activities, not
objects (books, grades, and teachers), as is typical in today’s classroom.
Activities should be “learner centered” with students needing to be agents
in the construction of their own learning. Interaction with others is a critically
important part of the socialization process, which supports learning.
Vygotsky suggests creation of the “zone of proximal development” where
students are provided a framework for continually stretching their academic
talents to the next level, within a scaffolded context—with scaffolding
coming from the learning support structure—teachers, instructional materials,
other students, etc.
Expectations and outcomes are different in a constructivist learning environment
than those found in the traditional classroom.Therefore, testing
procedures must be redesigned to compensate for the expanded knowledge
base that the student is developing.Testing for surface knowledge
excludes much of the contextual learning.
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Technology can provide
learning alternatives for
many traditionally “disadvantaged”
students.
This prompts us to look at assessment methods and tools more closely.
Assessment programs today tend to measure surface knowledge, rather
than meaningful knowledge. Surface knowledge includes memorization of
facts, procedures and information that can be easily categorized. It is like
information that can be programmed, such that a robot could master the
information in the form of “data.” Meaningful knowledge is anything that
makes sense to the learner. It consists of more than just sticking bits of
data together. It is the result of the brain’s making linkages or “patterns that
connect” (Bateson, 1980).
The testing programs that assess skills that are useful only in school are
being challenged. Standardized testing is increasing, along with the emphasis
on test scores and measuring for accountability.While the trends are to
measure more to ensure more learning, the measurements are focusing on
surface knowledge which is not indicative of the type of learning that is
needed for the new economy. Normative assessment programs are typically
built upon assessment engines that test lower order thinking—fact and formulae
memorization which can be measured by multiple-choice tests.
These tests typically are limited to the types of learning—and even intelligence
that can be measured.
Teaching and Learning As Systems
The second half of this century has evoked new analyses of systems, with
the research on systems theories.The recent perspective of looking at
institutions as “educational systems” presents an opportunity to rethink the
concepts of teaching and learning—as a system.A system can be viewed as
an abstract model which “explains” some aspect of the world and rules for
its operation. It defines a set of elements that has an identity. It is distinguished
from the rest of the world by boundaries (definitions). It identifies
the relations among sets of elements—learners, instructors, content, etc. It
provides a framework for the rules that govern these relations over time or
form.These rules deal with the causes, the explanations of why and how
something is or comes into being in a particular way at a particular time
and place.A system is an entity that as a whole has qualities which are different
from those of its parts.
Systems thinking encourages the view that events happen in a non-linear
fashion. One analogy is the straw that breaks the camel’s back.All of the
events that led to the straw breaking the camel’s back contributed to the
break—the straw can’t be attributed as the only cause. Our typical inclination
to solve problems is by first labeling, describing, and categorizing the
elements of the problem.We then look at historical patterns and data to
diagnose causes and predict future events. In the system’s theory perspective,
the ability to see the patterns and relationships of a whole system is
critical—as is mastering the ability to reject the need for isolating specific
causes.
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New forms of assessment
must be developed to
match new learning goals
and instructional methods.
Systems thinking, a derivative of Systems Theory is a relatively new concept
which received focus in 1956 when J.W. Foster at MIT began to apply
the knowledge he gained from his work in electromechanical research
towards management of corporate environments. Senge brought the concept
of systems thinking into practice in the last twenty years, with his
book “The Fifth Discipline” (Senge, 1991). Senge defines systems thinking
as a discipline for seeing wholes, recognizing patterns and interrelationships,
and learning how to structure those interrelationships in more
effective, efficient ways (Senge, P.,& Lannon-Kim, C., 1991).As in any system,
the analysis of the individual components’ role in the system is discouraged.
When looking at the educational system as a whole, one can gain a better
understanding of the contributing factors to success. Most research on
education has evaluated students as individual learners, and attempted to
identify specific causes related to outcomes—or has evaluated teaching
and the effect on classes of students. Rarely is the teaching and learning
environment evaluated as a system.
Benjamin Bloom (1984) pioneered work to isolate the specific effects of
learning outcomes, with research that was structured to include changing
variables to understand the implications of these changes. He describes the
following components that contribute to the overall learning environment,
as well as identifying relative importance of the effect of each factor:
• Tutorial Instruction
• Reinforcement
• Feedback-corrective
• Cues and Explanations
• Student classroom participation
• Student time on task
• Improved reading/study skills
• Cooperative Learning
• Homework (graded and assigned)
• Classroom Morale
• Initial Cognitive Prerequisites
• Home environment intervention
• Peer and cross age remedial tutoring
• Higher order questions
• New Science and Math curricula
• Teacher expectancy
• Peer group influence
• Advanced organizers
• Socio-economic status (for contrast)
While these do represent elements of a teaching and learning system, they
need to be evaluated as a system, and not as individual components. Our
educational system is still caught up in a highly reductionistic and fragmented
traditional way of thinking. Its entire thinking process is still
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Many factors contribute
to an overall learning
experience.
extremely sequential and hierarchical in nature.This form of thinking is so
focused on the individual processes that the very system which these
processes serve is invariably lost from view. Systems thinking, on the other
hand, acknowledges the interrelated nature of the various subsystems or
processes that constitute the whole (system). Sarason (1992 p. ) sums this
up in the following way:
What we call “education” is a complex network of interacting components,
constituents, and forces —in other words, a “system.”
Understanding “systems thinking” and “systems theory” will cer-tainly
enhance a change agent’s probability of causing important changes
in education. In fact, it is even considered by many to be
a requirement for change in education.
An integrated teaching and learning system is represented in the diagram
below:
In the teaching and learning system described above, the process is depicted
as an interactive flow, starting with the filters influencing the course
goals, typically specified by the instructor or the department.These influence
the content to be taught, which may be linked to an assessment tool
which can better target the instructional content.The content can then be
presented with different methods: from textbooks, to computer based
instructional software, from teachers’ lectures, to other students’ input.
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Teacher influenced by:
Setting
Prior Knowledge
Capacity for Learning
Teaching Style
Attitude and Emotions
Sociological Factors
Learner influenced by:
Setting
Prior Knowledge
Capacity for Learning
Learning Style
Attitude and Emotions
Sociological Factors
CLASS
OBJECTIVE
ASSESSMENT
TEACHER CONTENT
FILTER
STUDENT
FILTER
Media
Peers
Instructor
These are then synthesized and filtered by the learner who has his or her
set of unique learning goals.The learner is influenced by many factors,
from previous knowledge, desire or fear of learning, the setting--including
location, time of day and other factors.Throughout this process are constant
feedback mechanisms.The teacher observes different students'
behaviors, and then may adjust the assessment or the content accordingly.
Formal assessment plays a role both in building the short term memorization
skills for basic learning, and can serve to evaluate mastery of specific
items. From assessment comes additional instruction, whose content and
form may change, based on the feedback and results.
There are projects underway such as the STACI (Systems Thinking and
Curriculum Innovations) whose goal is to take the Systems Thinking
approach to the classroom using simulation modeling software to teach
content knowledge and problem solving skills. Over 40 teachers are using
the Systems Thinking approach to teach learning (ETS, 1999).
If new methods of instruction can deliver improved outcomes, the impact
to individuals, institutions and society can be significant.The combination
of understanding new research in learning approaches and research in
instructional technology’s effectiveness using improvements in hardware
and software provides new opportunities to deliver highly interactive
instruction.
The Role of Technology in Education
As the U.S. spends trillions of dollars implementing computer-based solutions,
the challenge is to ensure that those implementations really address
the needs for which the systems were acquired. Economic productivity is
typically measured in output, as measured in economic terms such as gross
domestic product (GDP).This focus is far more centered on businesses,
where the productivity gap of computers has been well-documented
(Strassman, 1985, 1998, 1997, Brynjolffson, and Landauer, 1995). In education,
millions of computers have been acquired and put into schools, with
productivity results that have also been difficult to measure. Information
technology accounts for almost 50% of all capital expenditures by corporations
yet only 2% of spending in school systems.
The ability to use technology opens new opportunities to explore ways to
teach and learn.The concept of using technology in learning isn’t new; the
format of the technology is just changing.Technology aids, ranging from
books, to slide rules, calculators, televisions and computers have supplemented
learning for years. Changes in technology have been at a non-linear
rate and now provide new options to deliver far more effective, personalized
instruction than in the past.Today’s generation of children are growing
up with a different expectation of technology’s role in their lives, with
the minimum acceptable level of graphical quality and interactivity being
driven from video games.
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Computers and Learning Background
The use of microcomputers expanded rapidly in all segments of the economy
during the 1980s. Between 1981 and the end of the decade American
schools acquired over two million microcomputers. Estimates are that the
number of schools owning computers increased from approximately 25
percent to virtually 100 percent (Lehman, 1997).
One consistent conclusion is that the key to successful implementation of
technology includes many factors: appropriate consideration for the use of
the technology, appropriate hardware and software, adequate training and
support. Research consistently shows that poor applications of technology
yield poor results across all sectors of the economy.The 1998 Study by the
Educational Testing Service (ETS) found that technology can play a positive
role in improving educational outcomes.
Despite the issues raised above, there is also no doubt that the educational
use of computer technology will increase.The use of the Internet opens
doors to learning opportunities that didn’t exist a decade ago.We keep
hearing about how schools must be wired to support the Internet.Arguments
for computer usage, such as that of Roger Shank, Director of The
Institute for Learning Sciences at Northwestern University demonstrate
one point of view. Shank argues (1995, p. 72) “for massive educational
change to occur in this country, the computer will have to be the medium
of change.” Computers can allow for individualized instruction, along with
allowing students to explore without fear of failure, and to use multiple
input structures (audio, video and text) in a way that works best for them.
There has been a great deal of research conducted during the 1970s,
1980s, and early 1990s on the effects of computer use on student achievement,
attitudes, and other variables, such as learning rate.This research covers
a wide range of topics, and computerized learning activities that supplement
conventional instruction; from the use of computers as sole
instructional mediums, to the use of computers for research,word processing
and for programming (Kulik & Kulik, 1984, 1987, 1994; Fitz-Gibbons,
1984 Bangert-Drowns, et al.,1985; Batey,1987; Grimes, 1977; Samson et
al.,1986).
Much of the research is based on looking at the role of computer-aided
instruction, often called Computer-Based Instruction, or instructional software
(Kulik & Kulik, 1984, 1987). It is important to keep in mind that computer
based instruction is changing rapidly, and that the scope of studies
reviewed spans many different types of computer software (Gifford, 1999).
These types of software include drill and practice software which is typically
a “bolt on” to other curriculum, games, and some integrated learning
systems. Computer hardware processing power and costs have made rich
software unaffordable in many schools, so the quality of software used, and
13
Using The Web For Interactive Teaching and Learning
Computers are everywhere.
But are they being used
productively?
New methods for assessing
the “value” of technology
for learning need to be
developed.
the approaches used to acquire and deliver the software often compromise
the learning quality.Very few of the software programs evaluated in
these studies compare to the high quality of the software available today.
Today, one can buy a Pentium computer system, with high quality sound
and video for less than ,,000.This provides a robust system, which can
support full-motion video, audio, and powerful programs.While hardware
developments have progressed according to Moore’s Law (former IBM
research scientist), software has evolved in stages at a much slower pace.
Under Moore’s Law, the capacity of a computer chip doubles every 18
months. If software development tools had advanced with the same speed,
we would have smaller code bases, with tools that allowed for much easier
development (Lehman, 1997).
Over the past 20 years, there have been four different generations of
instructional software, following the availability of different operating systems.
First-generation products were text-based, typically running under
DOS. Second-generation products were built with rudimentary graphics
and typically provided practice functionality instead of instruction.Third
generation products were designed to deliver a rich-media learning experience—
typically via interactive CD-ROMs.These products included engaging
multi-media, such as interactive encyclopedias, which offered limited
instruction. Fourth-generation products are available now.These products
utilize audio, graphics, animation and text in a way that has been proven to
deliver increases in learning retention by stimulating both right and left
brain engagement.Animation and graphics, combined with programmed
logic allows software to “adapt” to user input, providing a richer learning
environment (Brogan, 1999).
Along with fourth generation instructional software is the advent of the
second generation of “teaching and learning systems.”Teaching and learning
systems are integrated “mediated learning” systems, which integrate
instructional software with an instructional management system.The management
system provides instructors and students the mediation to ensure
that the instructional content is presented in a manner optimized to the
student.The student is provided with a rich, personalized learning system,
configured based on feedback, assessments and profiling done in the management
system.
A challenge for software developers is that most educational institutions
have a mixture of new and old technology, and they want to purchase software
that can run on more than one generation of PCs. Rich media-based
instruction, with extensive audio and video, typically proves incompatible
with institutional system compatibility goals.
The push for Web-based software is driving development of more fourthgeneration
software.This instruction uses audio, video and animation com-
14
Using The Web For Interactive Teaching and Learning
Mediated Learning provides
the integration of instructional
software, a management
system and traditional
methods.
bined with rich assessment tools and adaptive logic which creates personalized
learning plans. In addition to the interactive instruction, the robust
management systems deliver student and instructor feedback supplemented
by print materials, which in total provide a rich “mediated learning”
environment.
Computer-Based Instruction
Computer-based instruction has some benefits for both instructor and students
(Miller, 1990). Among the potential benefits are:
• Reduced learning time
• Reduced costs
• Instructional consistency
• More privacy
• Guided mastery of learning
• Increased retention
• Improved safety
• Increased motivation
• Multiple access
• Increased engagement
• Personalized feedback
Properly integrated instruction can have benefits, but can cause potential
issues if the technology isn’t well implemented.The research covering
computer aided instruction focuses mostly on reduced learning time and
increased retention. Some studies have demonstrated that computer-aided
instruction can be cost-effective (Jewitt, 1998). Few studies have looked at
the outcomes that affect individual learners: personalized instruction,
increased feedback and motivation. Part of the challenge in collecting this
information is that much of the data would optimally be collected through
observations and interviews.
Technology’s Role in Teaching and Learning Systems
In looking at teaching and learning as a system as depicted in the model
on page 11, one can see that technology can play an important role in
helping improve assessment methods, in the actual content and the content
delivery methods, and in addressing the learner's goals.
In the assessment area, technology can be used to:
• Assess prior knowledge
• Create a prescriptive learning plan
• Reinforce learning
• Provide immediate feedback
• Measure success
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Using The Web For Interactive Teaching and Learning
Technology can be used in the content area to increase the size of the
library, to allow reuse of different components in different learning plans,
and to target the content to be presented in different ways, meeting the
needs of different learning styles.
Technology can play a key role in improving the delivery of instructional
content by:
• Presenting media in visual, graphical way using animation,
video and other forms of multimedia.
• Using audio to expand sensory input.
• Creating “learning by doing” exercises.
• Using adaptive programming logic, mapping to input and
feedback.
• Offering learners the ability to control the pace and flow in a
non-threatening, patient manner.
• Providing a framework for collaboration for students and
instructors.
• Managing the learning environment--tracking for instructors
providing immediate feedback on results.
• Teaching the “dirty work,” or rote instruction
• Offering instruction any place, any time.
Insructional software better addresses learners’ goals, by providing a prescriptive
learning plan, based on assessment tools, and learners’ performance.
Software can adapt to students' answers and patterns, providing
input based on specific responses. Learners can control the rate and pace
of instruction, and choose a method that best meets their individual preferences.
Improvements in Productivity and Academic Results
The most comprehensive reviews of research findings on the impact of
technology-mediated communication on learning have been carried out by
University of Michigan researchers Kulik & Kulik and their associates
(Bangert-Drowns, James Kulik and Kulik, 1984- 1987, 1991).The meta-analysis
of research has found that computer-mediated instruction consistently
improves learner productivity.These results include:
1. Students usually learn more in classes in which they receive
computer-based instruction.
2. Students learn their lessons in less time with computer-based
instruction.
3. Students like their classes more when they receive computer
help.
4. Students develop more positive attitudes towards computers
when they receive help from them in school.
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Using The Web For Interactive Teaching and Learning
Other research has confirmed these findings.The research typically evaluated
second generation software, which was used in more of a drill and
practice mode, rather than to deliver customized, rich instruction.The
availability of rich learning environments offering teaching and learning
systems has not proven to be a financially sustainable business for software
companies, resulting in a real lack of quality instructional software.
The Effectiveness of Educational Technology
ETS (Educational Testing Service) conducted a multi-year analysis of the
use of technology in schools and found the following results in evaluating
the effectiveness of technology:
• Research generally agrees that drill-and-practice forms of
computer-based instruction are effective in producing
achievement gains in students.
• More pedagogically complex uses of educational technology
generally show more inconclusive results, yet many offer
promising and inviting educational vignettes.
• Many ongoing educational technology projects are in the
process of documenting and recording measures of student
motivation, academic outcomes, and other outcomes such as
increased skills in problem-solving and collaboration.
• Evaluations of educational technology are really evaluations
of instruction enabled by technoogy, and the outcomes are
highly dependent on the implementation of the instrucational
design.
• Evaluations of educational technology applications must confront
a number of methodological problems, including the
need for measures other than standardized achievement tests,
differences among students in opportunity to learn, and differences
in starting points and program implementation.
• Effects of educational technology remain in the classroom to
influence many generatoins of students.
URL: http://www.ets.org/research/pic/cc-sum.html
(Source: ETS, Reprinted with permission.)
Online Learning and Teaching
“The brave new world of net delivered and assisted training is exciting
and real. Online Learning is not about taking a course and
putting it on the desktop. It is about a new blend of resources, interactivity,
performance support and structured learning activi-ties.”
—Elliott Masie, The Masie Center—The Technology and Learning
ThinkTank
Online teaching and learning can be described as business or educational
instruction that is enhanced by the use of interactive multimedia authoring
17
Using The Web For Interactive Teaching and Learning
and production software, personal computers,Web and/or intranets, and
learning management systems for delivering instruction and tracking learner
results and other key training-related data.
Online teaching and learning systems enable learners to determine which
training modules they would like to take and in what order. Custom curriculum
plans can be developed based on a variety of characteristics,
including skill level, learning goals, and learning styles.“Mastery-based”
learning programs let the learning management system automatically
assign curriculum components so that learners don’t take training topics
in which they have already developed competency. Using an online learning
system, an institution can create a virtual campus in which learners,
instructors and others can collaborate.
Online learning environments have been deployed with success on college
campuses nationwide.The best implementation is the mediated learning
model, introduced in concept by Dr. Bernard Gifford, and implemented in
products delivered by Academic Systems.The Mediated Learning model is a
faculty-guided, learner-centered approach to instruction and learning that
takes advantage of the combined strengths of the instructor, the learner
and multimedia technology to create an individualized learning environment
and increase student academic achievement.
The mediated learning model preserves the core elements of the traditional
model of instruction—student, faculty, text—and it introduces a new element,
computer-mediated instruction assessment support.This model modifies
the role of each element of instruction so that the individual needs of
the student are addressed. Mediated Learning gives students better access
to additional learning resources, when they need them and at the level
they require. Faculty can optimize their limited time and energy and campuses
may gain more flexibility in the allocation of resources within their
department.With the inclusion of distributed learning options, institutions
can benefit in two ways: they can provide access to mediated instruction
to students who now no longer have to come to the computer lab on the
school’s mandated schedule, and they can better use their limited lab and
classroom capacity.
The benefits of providing an integrated teaching and learning environment
are extensive: increased pass-rates, increased student engagement and satisfaction,
flexibility in delivering content, more personalized instruction
based on assessments, and improved cost-effectiveness for the institution.
Extensive research using this fourth generation instructional system shows
impressive results in many areas: student engagement, higher pass rates,
teacher satisfaction and improved success in follow-on courses.
Results of mediated learning research can be found at
http://www.academic.com/library/articles/mllibrary.html.
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Using The Web For Interactive Teaching and Learning
Benefits of integrated teaching
and learning sytems include
increased pass rates,
increased student engagement
and satisfaction and
more personalized learning.
Over 200 campuses today
are conducting interactive
instruction using Academic
Systems’ Interactive Math
and English software.
Distance Learning
Distance learning has been available for many years, in different formats.
There has been a significant increase in the number of distance learning
programs, and the increase has been driven by both customers’ needs and
availability of newer approaches due to technology advances. Other pressures
are coming from outside the traditional institutional infrastructure.
New, for profit, Education Marketing Institutions (EMIs) such as the Apollo
Group are filling in the gaps that are being created by traditional institutions’
failures to respond to the needs of the market.Today, the University
of Phoenix is the leading institutional provider of education in the United
States, with some 61,000+ students enrolled, with over 9,000 enrolled in
their distance learning courses. Distance learning plays a key role in delivering
instruction. Distance learning now represents about 12% of higher
education enrollments (Green, 1998).
According to Keegan (1996), distance education is defined as the following
equation: distance education = distance teaching + distance learning
(Keegan, 1996).Keegan (1996) defines distance learning as the following
components:
• Separation of teacher and learner which distinguishes it from
face-to-face lecturing;
• The influence of an educational organization which distinguishes
it from private study;
• The use of technical media to unite teacher and learner and
carry educational content;
• Provision of two-way communication so that the student may
benefit from and even initiate dialogue;
• The possibility of occasional meetings for both didactic and
socialization purposes; and
• Participation in an industrialized form of education.
The key differentiation in distance learning offerings is the level of interaction
and location and time.The implementation formats relate to different
generations of technology, spanning different time periods.These can be
divided into technology stages (Nipper, 1989):
• 1st generation: Low tech media characterized by no
interaction.
Example: Radio or tape broadcast, textbooks sent to students
with minimal interaction by phone
• 2nd generation: Asynchronously interactive courses characterized
by delivery of broadcast (TV or radio) with call in
interactivity (during or after) either by phone, or email.
• 3rd generation: Characterized by web pages with online
syllabus, chat sessions offering real-time interaction, with
other static materials.
• 4th generation: Real-time interactivity with software, video
cameras, integrated management system.
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Using The Web For Interactive Teaching and Learning
Distance Learning can cost
less and provide a wider
library of instruction to
more people.
In 2002, it is projected that
over 2.2 million “students”
will participate in a distance
learning course representing
a 33% compound
annual growth rate.
(Source: IDC)
Today’s courses are moving more and more towards third and fourth generation
modes.Among the enabling factors are: cost decreasing and availability
of technology increasing, financial and time support for extended
learning driven by the work environment, and the need for flexibility to
support more complex lives of students and faculty.
A fourth generation of distance teaching is being facilitated by higher
bandwidth computers and the Internet.Waggoner (1992) describes computer
interaction in the third generation of technology as exclusively
asynchronous.
Another perspective is to look at distance learning as educational offerings
differing along two axes: time and location.The figure below represents
the two continuums. Each of the four models offer a different level of student
interactivity, ability to integrate rich media, opportunity to provide
feedback and tracking, customization and communication.
Distance Learning Research
There is learning that can be extracted from research on distance learning
courses offered using non-computer based methods, since that has been
the predominant distance learning mode for many years. Most of the studies
reviewed have compared delivery media types. Dublin and Tavaggia
performed a longitudinal study of various approaches used in college
teaching.They found that in 91 studies performed between 1921 and 1965
that there was “unequivocally no difference among truly distinctive methods
of college instruction when evaluated by student performance on final
exams” (Dublin and Tavaggia, 1968, P. 35).Thomas Russell (1999) published
an annotated bibliography called “The No Significant Difference Phenomenon,”
which lists hundreds of articles and research supporting the position
that attitudes and satisfaction of distance learning students are positive
as compared to traditional (typically classroom) approaches.
The key learning is that there are no significant negative differences in
learning outcomes.The expectation is that with the role of the faculty-student
interaction being minimized due to the lack of physical meeting, that
the learning outcome would be reduced.Additionally, because many people
who enroll in distance learning courses enroll due to the need for flexibility,
the courses have much higher drop out rates. So to have results that
show that student achievement isn’t compromised is actually positive.
Research shows that access to technology and courses is less important a
factor than quality access and training. Human factors are still critically
important—in a meta analysis, 40% of students say that they miss the faceto-
face interactions with instructors, and 25% say they miss the group
dynamics.
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Using The Web For Interactive Teaching and Learning
Distance learning research
found that there can be
equivalent student success
in distance learning mode
as other modes.
Metcalfe’s Laws states
thats the cost of a network
expands linearly with
increases in network size
but the value of the network
increases exponentially.
Most of the distance learning studies focused on media type, and in many
cases relied on videotaped instruction as the main form of delivery of
instruction. In the past twenty years, technology has opened new opportunities
to provide an improved level of interactivity for distance learning.
Richard Clark (1983) states: The best current evidence is that media are
mere vehicles that deliver instruction but do not influence student
achievement any more than the truck that delivers our groceries causes
changes in our nutrition, only the content of the vehicle can influence
achievement (p. 445).
Olcott (1992) recently stated:“The research on student achievement is giving
way to greater emphasis on student attitudes toward technology, economic
analysis of ITV (instructional television), instructor effectiveness,
course design features, and learning theory applied to media-based learning”
(p.3).
Distance learning can cost less and provide a wider library of instruction
to people.This provides a foundation to apply technology to deliver the
“higher quality” learning environment.
Critical Success Factors for Distance Learning
Because it has been difficult to determine causation of success for programs,
it is difficult to state with certainty the requirements for successful
distance learning.Among the factors that can be controlled to support a
positive distance learning outcome are:
• Profiling of students and faculty who will be more likely to
succeed with this method.
• Developing and implementing best practices that support
technology solutions.
• Ensuring an adequate support structure allowing for communications
between faculty and students, students and students.
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Using The Web For Interactive Teaching and Learning
TIME
Synchronous Asynchronous
• Traditional classroom
• 2-way video
Broadcast
Same
Different
• Correspondence
• Web-based courses
• Distributed mediated learning
Distance Learning Models
LOCATION
• Having a clear understanding of curriculum goal and setting
rigid pedagogical standards.
• Implementing productive instructional design to allow for
ease of use and increased productivity.
• Ensuring adequate teacher training and motivation to use this
method.
Profiling Students for Success
It is important to understand that not all people are appropriate candidates
for using technology to teach and learn.The literature review of the
study by The Institute for Higher Education Policy (1999) concluded that
the following characteristics were correlated with student success.Technology
can play a role in profiling students who can do well using interactive
instruction and go the next step to deliver personalized instruction.
• Students who rated themselves highly on various measures of
persistence related to taking on new projects.
• Married students.
• Students who rate the consequences of not passing “serious.”
• Students who rate their chances of succeeding in their studies
higher than non-completers.
• Students who did not need support from others to complete
difficult tasks and did not find it important to discuss work
with other students.
• Students with high literacy levels.
• Students who rated themselves as well organized in terms of
time management skills and said they generally had the time
to do what they intended to do.
• Students who rated their formal and informal learning as high
in terms of preparing them for university studies.
• Female students.
Best Practices for Technology Implementation
There is a considerable amount of learning from computer-delivered
instructional lab environments that can be applied to distance learning.
Computer labs have been used for the past ten years to deliver instruction.
Critically important to the successful usage are:
• Ensuring that the hardware and software are installed and
tested prior to the class start.
• Planning for machine breakdowns—have backup machines
available for any information that must be made available to
students (management system,Web site, syllabus).
• Having technical support available during the hours students
are working, which typically for distance learning includes
early morning hours.
• Developing a contingency plan for technology failure—perhaps
a phone system which has information, or provide information
on CDs or other local media.
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Using The Web For Interactive Teaching and Learning
Technology-based instruction
isn’t the solution for
everyone. At best it is
another option.
• Teachers must be well trained and have their support structure
in place.This includes ensuring that teachers are well
equipped to do email from mobile locations.
• Offering an orientation program, preferably using the same
instructional mode.
• Providing feedback processes to monitor success or failure,
and alternatives for those who are not able to deal well with
technology.
• Recognizing the technology base that students will be and
communicate systems requirements. For web environments,
understand browser install base and provide clear instructions
about supported operating environments.
Instructional Design Elements for Online Learning
The above best practices focus on the delivery of the instruction. Perhaps
even more important is the design and creation of the instructional material.
Knowledge of instructional design practices are critical to the successful
implementation distance of course material. Phipps (1999) suggests the
following guidelines for successful instructional design:
• Employ a high the level of interactivity to keep students
engaged.
• Use multiple instructional methods to improve results.
• Provide a balance between virtual interaction and direct
interchange.
• Provide a well thought-out user interface.
• Make the instructional navigation simple yet in support of
frequent and infrequent user types.
• Provide ongoing assessment and feedback to reinforce learning.
• Use audio, video and animation to support different learning
styles and optimize memory and brain utilization.
• Limit use of text to not overload screens. Students process
text on a display at a rate of about 30% less than that of
paper. Use graphics where possible.
• Let learners guide the instruction, but not get lost.
• Provide scaffolding to allow learners to fill in gaps of learning
through help systems, glossaries, and links to assessment and
instruction.
• Provide options in support of differences in female and male
uses of technology.
• Ensure that the response time of the instructional environment
matches that of the learner as best possible.
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Using The Web For Interactive Teaching and Learning
The Benefits of Online Teaching and Learning
The needs of a diverse population of learners can be met with a flexible
system that can educate employees anytime, anywhere.With new theories
of intelligence and learning, technology can be used to appeal to different
learning styles. Programming can be adaptive to create personal learning
plans.The linkage assessment tools which can diagnose and prescribe with
instructional content can deliver learning systems which can improve
learning results.
Research shows that students learn more when they can control the
course of their learning. Software can be architected with an understanding
that individuals differ in their learning preferences and paces.The
instructional software can provide a combination of audio, video and animation
to appeal to different learners’ styles. Students may repeat instructional
selections without feeling embarrassed.And teachers do not now
have to accommodate the slowest or fastest students. Students with motivation
or aptitude that is stronger or weaker than others may move ahead
at the pace that meets their needs.
In addition to supporting different learning styles software can be architected
to provide visual and auditory stimulation, based on research, which
shows that students learn and retain more when they use more than one
sense. Because interactivity is key to capturing students attention, software
can be designed to provide students with an engaging experience that
shows the importance of the subject matter, at the same time building
higher order thinking skills. This is accomplished by showing videos and
using animation to explain the history and applicability of key concepts.
According to dual coding theory information is processed through one of
two generally independent channels. One channel processes verbal information
such as text or audio.The other channel processes nonverbal
images such as illustrations and sounds in the environment. Information
can be processed through both channels.This occurs, for example, when a
person sees a picture of a dog and also processes the word “dog.” Information
processed through both channels is called referential processing and
has an additive effect on recall. Learning is better when the information is
referentially processed through two channels than when the information is
processed through only one channel. Referential processing may produce
this additive effect because the learner creates more cognitive paths that
can be followed to retrieve the information. Using audio with video can
promote engagement of multiple brain channels, resulting in increased
retention.
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Using The Web For Interactive Teaching and Learning
Technology can provide
multiple ways of presenting
instruction, achieving higher
levels of retention.
William Glasser, an Educational Pyschologist describes the effectiveness of
different modes of learning:
What we read 10%
What we hear 20%
What we see 30%
What we see/hear 50%
What we discuss with others 70%
What we experience 80%
What we teach someone else 95%
This presents us the opportunities to learn through participating in many
of these different forms of the learning experience with the ultimate
engagement coming from a high level of collaboration. Research shows
that people learn better when they are encouraged to collaborate.
Software can be built to maximize the benefits of technology to allow the
computer to provide personalized and adaptive instruction and assessment.
Many students perform better with computer based feedback, which
reinforces positive learning, and provides them a supportive, patient environment
to help them work through areas where they lack understanding.
Online learning systems can be forgiving--students don't feel embarrassed
when they repeat learning segments. Developing instruction built on a
mediated learning approach, students can be involved in a software-guided,
step-by-step process of problem solving and receive immediate feedback.
Systems can be designed to give immediate positive reinforcement
important for mastering lower level skills.When students provide incorrect
answers, the software can be designed to provide a hint as to how to correctly
complete the problem based on logic built into the system that
understands where the student made the error. Students have the option
to go back to the different portions of the courseware to enhance their
understanding of any lesson at any time, thus allowing students to progress
at a rate with which they are comfortable.
Assessment programs can methodically capture data and administrative
tasks to ensure accurate records and compliance. Online learning simplifies
this process since data capture is automatic and courses can be reassigned
to learners when re-certification is required. Institutions can document
learner progress mastery for reimbursement purposes.
Systems can provide detailed feedback at many levels: pre-tests, practice
problems, evaluation scores, time on task, student progress reports, section
reports and more to both the teacher and the student.
The delivery of first generation Web-based instructional management systems,
as in PathwareTM 4 product provides a platform for integrating Webbased
instructional content.This system can inventory, deliver, track and
report student progress for many types of courses, and is not limited to
25
Using The Web For Interactive Teaching and Learning
Software can provide highly
interactive, personal
instruction.
Technology is available
today to deliver integrated
teaching and learning systems.
The greatest form of mastery
is represented by
conveying knowledge to
someone else.
only Web-based instruction. New Web authoring tools like Authorware®
AttainTM and AttainTM Objects for DreamweaverTM provide non-programmers
the ability to easily create highly interactive instructional software
which can output various levels of data to the instructional management
system.
Today some campuses are making available instructional CDs to students
to use outside the class laboratory, in a hybrid distance learning environment,
preserving the tracking information with the management system by
having students connect via the Internet, as in the Academic Systems’
implementations.This provides campuses far more flexibility to expand
the number of class sections.Typically, the computer lab sections are limited
due to availability of lab time.While this does provide students the ability
to learn anytime, anywhere, it does pose problems for the faculty to
keep some students on course.The ability to defer the work often does
result in deferral, and sometimes students don’t allow enough time to finish
the material, resulting in an incomplete grade for the course. Other students
are able to finish the course, typically working at 1:00 am.The key to
the successful deployment of this type of teaching and learning system is
the Instructional Management System which allows instructors to monitor
all activities.
A Starting Point: Using Technology to Share Knowledge
“New technology will play a big role in learning both inside and
outside the classroom. The return on investment will be profound.”
—Bill Gates, The Road Ahead
The standardization of the Web as a delivery platform has tremendous
advantages. Previous discussions about platforms limited the ability of software
developers to create content that could be ubiquitously delivered.
The browser as a default Web operating environment is not optimal for
delivering instructional content, but the trade-off is that there are now
“only” two standards. Most content can be created to be delivered in either
Netscape NavigatorTM or Internet ExplorerTM using the same software. Other
new developments include:
Instructional management systems (IMS). Software that allows us
to track performance and provide feedback are available.The IMS assesses
student capabilities and performance and adjusts an individual’s learning
path adapting to his or her strengths and weaknesses, rate of progress, and
learning style.The IMS also saves student performance data and provides
reports to the student and to the course administrator, detailing student
progress and recommended studies.
26
Using The Web For Interactive Teaching and Learning
The web will provide a
low cost alternative.
Previous courses cost
0 per hour of computer-
based instruction.
With new software tools
and the Web this cost is
now projected to be
:node_body,.03 per hour in 2002.
(Source: Merrill Lynch)
Next generation systems will have sophisticated profiling capabilities, creating
a tight link to assessments and create prescriptive learning plans.The
most robust product in the market today is Pathware 4.
Networking and communications systems changes. High bandwidth
Internets and Intranets encourage creation and delivery of computer-
mediated learning systems. This provides a framework to create a learning
environment that places the individual student at the center of the
learning enterprise, engaging him or her with highly interactive multimedia
courseware.With the help of mentors, students can work their way
through the entire curriculum of those courses that lend themselves to
this approach. Students now have e-mail accounts and many dormitories
are wired with LANs providing access to courses from outside the classroom.
New powerful, easy-to-use authoring tools are available.
Sophisticated software enabling faculty to work in a multimedia environment,
customizing courseware by expanding or creating topics and lessons
is now available.These include object-oriented authoring systems with
visual programming interface developed specifically for multimedia courseware
development.This technology allows us to reinvent curricula, and in
this way to deliver distinctive educational experiences that are richer in
content and context than even the most dedicated instructor can create in
a traditional classroom lecture.
New tools are available that dramatically change the development process
for instructional content. Historically, the costs in terms of time to develop
interactive courseware for the business world ranged from 200-300 hours
per hour of instruction.With templates and “Knowledge ObjectsTM,” programming
efficiencies can reduce this time required substantially.
Knowledge Objects are pre-built wizards and templates that can be used to
accelerate authoring tasks, from creating application frameworks and
quizzes to installing fonts.
The instructional software development environment had traditionally consisted
of subject matter experts,working with instructional designers, who
created the instructional scope and sequence models using storyboards.
These were then handed off to programmers, who did the actual coding.
The next step was typically a quality assurance process that evaluated the
impact of every change.This process was lengthy, costly, and provided little
flexibility.Today, new authoring tools like Macromedia DreamweaverTM
and Attain® Objects for DreamweaverTM allow faculty to easily create
course Web sites without having to master programming languages like
HTML.
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Using The Web For Interactive Teaching and Learning
Standards: Providing a Platform for Interoperability
Interest in learning technology interoperability has rapidly grown from the
cause of a few pioneers like Macromedia to a critical mass phenomenon. It
is now widely acknowledged that interoperability holds the key to the
reuse and integration needed for tomorrow’s sophisticated online learning.
By providing a set of standards identifying specific trackable information,
training developers can build interactive instructional software which can
link to a common management system.This will allow organizations to better
manage and track instruction.The benefits of having a standards-based
integrated teaching and learning system are vast, including:
• Providing immediate feedback so that students and instructors
can take action as needed.
• Providing a comprehensive library of training materials in
one repository.
• Mixing and matching off the shelf content and custom content.
• Providing reports to allow for better measurements of usage
and results.
• Minimizing costs associated with the implementation of multiple
systems.
• Support for a wide selection of authoring tools that output
trackable data.
The standards efforts are still evolving, with work coming from different
interest groups--all with a common goal of creating standards for developers
to provide the requisite level of interoperability.Work began a decade
ago in the commercial aviation industry with the Aviation Industry CBT
Committee (AICC) which is an open forum of training professionals that
develops guidelines for interoperable learning technology.
During the past five years the AICC's Computer-Managed-Instruction (CMI)
specification has become established as the most comprehensive CMI
specification supported by products and in global operational use.The
AICC provides guidelines and recommendations covering ten areas, including:
publications, courseware delivery stations, digital audio, operating/
windowing systems, CBT peripheral devices, computer-managed instruction,
courseware interchange, digital video, icon standards, user interface,
Web-based computer-managed instruction.
The AICC has submitted its CMI specification to the IEEE LTSC for standardization.
As learning applications transition from LAN or CD-ROM onto
the Web and the transition from a closed to an open environment, standards
become essential. In a closed environment proprietary solutions
were acceptable, on the Web they are not.
The airline industry had a compelling set of needs for tracking training for
aircraft pilots, technicians and others. Detailed and accurate tracking was
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Using The Web For Interactive Teaching and Learning
AICC has the first set of
tracking specifications
available.
Standards improve the
return on investment by
providing a framework for
interoperability.
required to certify completion of training on different types of aircraft.
The standards recommended by the AICC are comprehensive and address
the majority of needs of corporations from most industries.With the delivery
of first generation Web based tracking systems that support the AICC
standards, as delivered in Pathware 4’s Integrated Management System,
customers in telecommunications, financial, healthcare and high technology
industries have found that these standards meet their needs. Educational
institutions have found that AICC standards-based products like Pathware 4
meet the majority of their needs, and where there are specific additional
tracking needs, the ability to track additional fields of data allows support
for these different needs. For information about AICC’s standards efforts,
visit http://www.aicc.org.
A separate effort sponsored by EDUCOM, the Instructional Management
Systems (IMS) project includes a consortium of learning institutions and
vendors whose goal is defining a comprehensive architecture for online
learning.
The first set of guidelines from IMS are still in development and will be
focused on integrating data between different systems--HR management
systems, administrative systems and training systems. IMS has over 200
member organizations that comprise major technology vendors, education
organizations representing K-12 and higher education, the U.S. military, and
international members. In 1998 Educom merged with CAUSE, forming
EDUCAUSE. IMS and AICC have signed a memo of understanding to collaborate
on areas of mutual interest.
The IMS architecture encompasses platform independent interfaces for
metadata, aggregated content, management services, user profiles and
external services such as databases. For more information, visit the
EDUCOM Web site at http://www.imsproject.org.
Successful, developer-oriented consortia such as the AICC and the IMS
now exist solely to define interoperability specification.They share a commitment
to exploring collaboration opportunities, converging on common
solutions, and using the IEEE Learning Technology Standards Committee to
turn their specifications into standards.
Another effort, the Advanced Distributed Learning (ADL) initiative fosters
collaborations between government, academia and industry to accelerate
the advent of effective online learning.The initiative began in November
1997 under the aegis of the U.S. Department of Defense and White House
Office of Science and Technology Policy.ADL is catalyzing alliances
between these groups to accelerate the pace of standards adoption across
the U.S. government.
29
Using The Web For Interactive Teaching and Learning
Following Macromedia’s lead, products from several vendors now support
the first viable specification:AICC CMI.The Computer Managed Instruction
Specification defines the performance data exchanged between a
learning management system and interactive lessons. It also defines a format
that allows courses to be exchanged between different management
systems.An IEEE CMI standard based on AICC CMI is expected in the year
2000.
Implementation will soon begin for the second viable specification:
Learning Object Metadata (LOM).This defines descriptive information that
can be associated with resources like interactive content to aid in their discovery
and use.The LOM specification represents an international collaboration
between the IMS and ARIADNE initiatives brokered by the IEEE
LTSC.An IEEE LOM standard is also expected in the year 2000.
Macromedia’s commitment to learning technology interoperability began
with its early support for the AICC: the first organization dedicated to the
problem.At present Macromedia actively participates in the AICC, the IMS,
the IEEE, LTSC and ADL.Across these efforts, Macromedia champions the
values of collaboration, convergence, standardization with a commitment
to be among the first to implement emerging standards in its products.
Start Now!
Faculty and administrators can start to implement the benefits now of
using technology to implement integrated teaching and learning systems.
One of the first steps is to identify where and how it makes sense in your
specific environment. If you are committed to offering distance learning
courses, planning the role technology can play is critical.Will the instruction
be using video, audio, computer instruction or simple web pages?
Faculty can begin to create interactive course web pages now with
DreamweaverTM, using Attain ObjectsTM for DreamweaverTM to create
simple interactivity. Faculty can put up a syllabus, reading list, links to the
library and students' email addresses. Presentation materials can be easily
migrated from formats like PowerPointTM presentations or handwritten
notes. Interaction can be added by dragging and dropping different forms
of interaction and editing the text.Tests can easily be constructed using
the templates that come with the instructional Web authoring products.
Tracking of answers and input can be enabled simply by clicking a button.
A next step is to evaluate the institution’s needs for an instructional management
system, and the role that you expect standards to play. Since AICC
standards are the only ones that have product support today, that is a good
place to start. Communicate the importance of these standards to those
creating or buying content to ensure that the content contains tracking
support.As courses are built, ensure that the tracking tools are used and
encourage the integration of tracking with content.
30
Using The Web For Interactive Teaching and Learning
It might make sense to pick a course to start with, and develop a pilot
implementation. One area to start is with the training of faculty on information
systems technology. Since most faculty need training themselves,
buying a course offered by a commercial vendor, like NetG, CBT or
Teach.com, and linking those courses to a tracking system can demonstrate
the simplicity and power of an integrated teaching and learning system.
These courses are built to work with the PathwareTM 4 Instructional
Management System. Providing the benefits to the faculty first can have
several benefits: it can provide the much needed training that can ensure
later success for other technology programs, and it can serve to inform the
institution of the benefits and challenges of implementing an integrated
teaching and learning system.To experiment with the Pathware
Instructional Management System, visit http://www.macromedia.com/software/
pathware/demo/exp_index.fhtml.
The Macromedia Solutions
Macromedia, with a 12-year history of developing technology products for
learning, is the leading provider of solutions for creating integrated teaching
and learning solutions.The Macromedia solution covers the entire
process of developing on-line learning from creating content to delivery,
tracking and reporting student results.
For developing computer-based instruction, new tools make developing
instructional content far easier, and less expensive than in the past.The
tools allow course designers to maximize the benefits of a hyper-linked
web environment. New products like Dreamweaver, with the Attain
Objects allow Web-based content to be created by subject matter experts
who don’t need to know programming languages.This new category of
developers can build interactive instructional web sites in a fraction of the
time that it would take using the previous model.The instructional designer
can drag and drop predefined interactions on a page, and customize the
content by editing the text.Templates for assessment like true/false questions,
multiple choice questions and others are available for selection.The
output generated by these tools is computer code, which can run in a
browser.
With new technologies like Macromedia FlashTM , with over 166 million
users (as of July, 1999) developers can create beautiful, resizable, and
extremely small and compact navigation interfaces, technical illustrations,
long-form animations, and other dazzling effects for learning Web sites and
other Web-enabled devices (such as WebTV).Additionally, Flash 4 is easy to
learn for Web developers of all skill levels. Flash graphics and animations
are created using the drawing tools in Flash or by importing artwork from
your favorite vector illustration tool, such as Macromedia FreeHand®.
31
Using The Web For Interactive Teaching and Learning
Macromedia offers a wide
range of authoring tools
and management software
—all product leaders in their
category.
ShockwaveTM is the Web standard for entertaining, engaging, and rich
media playback—with over 75 million players installed (July, 1999). It lets
you view interactive Web learning content from your Web browser.
Shockwave Player creates stronger communication through visual impact,
interactivity, and high-production values.Web users are attracted to content
that is engaging, informative and entertaining.
Authorware® AttainTM is the leading visual authoring tool for creating
interactive, rich-media learning applications. It allows training developers,
instructional designers and subject matter experts to create trackable
learning applications and deploy them across the Web, LANs and CD-ROM.
Authors leverage an intuitive visual interface and pre-built learning interactions
to quickly and easily create interactive courseware. Built-in data tracking
facilitates the recording of student results and streaming capabilities
enable delivery of rich-media learning content over Intranets and the Web.
Another product, Director® 7 ShockwaveTM Internet StudioTM is the
standard for creating and delivering powerful multimedia learning for the
Internet, CD-ROMs, and DVD-ROMs. Rather than serving simple graphics
and text, Director encourages creativity with the only tools powerful
enough to combine graphics, sound, animation, text, and video into compelling
content.
The Studio’s intuitive visual development metaphor makes it easy to create,
import, animate, and control media. For sophisticated interactivity, one
can leverage Director’s easy-to-use drag-and-drop behaviors or powerful
object-oriented scripting language.
PathwareTM 4 is the first Web-native, standards-based learning management
system for the enterprise.With Pathware you can efficiently plan,
produce, administer, and deliver curricula, as well as track, store, and report
student progress from any browser, anywhere in the world. No plug-ins or
downloads are necessary.
Pathware 4 allows mission-critical learning to be easily deployed, scaled,
and securely integrated with back-end systems. Pathware 4 tracks all forms
of commercial and custom-developed learning content, including Webbased
and instructor-led courses, for any number of students at multiple
locations. Pathware 4 supports the AICC standard for incorporating off-theshelf
learning content.
32
Using The Web For Interactive Teaching and Learning
The Future
“Information technology will bring mass customization to learning
too....Workers will be able to keep up to date on techniques in their
field. People anywhere will be able to take the best courses taught by
the greatest teachers.” --Bill Gates, The Road Ahead.
The future of integrated teaching and learning systems is exciting.Taking
advantage of the bandwidth available to desktops, the capabilities of
mobile technologies, and the emerging Web-based standards for delivering
instruction creates an environment for collaborative learning. Using systems
which can be trained to understand the learner's needs, assess prior knowledge,
and create and deliver a personalized learning plan is in the near
future.Tracking the instruction and knowing who needs what instruction
so that the system can be proactive rather than reactive are all technologically
feasible. Providing libraries of information that can be used for
instruction will reduce the duplicate expenses being spent because the
learning objects can be used in different formats, for different purposes.
With distributed technologies, learning can take place anytime, anywhere.
There will be increased pressure on educational institutions to challenge
many traditional practices: like fixed starting and ending class sessions
with a model that lends itself to open entry and open exit usage.The
issues of allowing students to progress at their own pace challenges the
boundaries of today's class syllabi--how do you measure for grading and
tuition planning courses? But the opportunity to meet the changing needs
of lifelong learners, outside the limits of the formal degree programs with
truly personalized instruction is truly exciting.Tools are available today to
provide this level of support for learning.
33
Using The Web For Interactive Teaching and Learning
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