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William
Shakespeare
The English playwright, poet, and actor William Shakespeare
(1564-1616) is generally acknowledged to be the greatest of English writers and
one of the most extraordinary creators in human history.
The most crucial fact about William Shakespeare's career is
that he was a popular dramatist. Born 6 years after Queen Elizabeth I had
ascended the throne, contemporary with the high period of the English
Renaissance, Shakespeare had the good luck to find in the theater of London a
medium just coming into its own and an audience, drawn from a wide range of
social classes, eager to reward talents of the sort he possessed. His entire
life was committed to the public theater, and he seems to have written nondramatic
poetry only when enforced closings of the theater made writing plays
impractical. It is equally remarkable that his days in the theater were almost
exactly contemporary with the theater's other outstanding achievements—the
work, for example, of Christopher Marlowe, Ben Jonson, and John Webster.
Shakespeare was born on or just before April 23, 1564, in
the small but then important Warwickshire town of Stratford. His mother, born
Mary Arden, was the daughter of a landowner from a neighboring village. His
father, John, son of a farmer, was a glove maker and trader in farm produce; he
had achieved a position of some eminence in the prosperous market town by the
time of his son's birth, holding a number of responsible positions in
Stratford's government and serving as mayor in 1569. By 1576, however, John
Shakespeare had begun to encounter the financial difficulties which were to
plague him until his death in 1601.
Though no personal documents survive from Shakespeare's
school years, his literary work shows the mark of the excellent if grueling
education offered at the Stratford grammar school (some reminiscences of
Stratford school days may have lent amusing touches to scenes in The Merry
Wives of Windsor). Like other Elizabethan schoolboys, Shakespeare studied
Latin grammar during the early years, then progressed to the study of logic,
rhetoric, composition, oration, versification, and the monuments of Roman
literature. The work was conducted in Latin and relied heavily on rote
memorization and the master's rod. A plausible tradition holds that William had
to discontinue his education when about 13 in order to help his father. At 18
he married Ann Hathaway, a Stratford girl. They had three children (Susanna,
1583-1649; Hamnet, 1585-1596; and his twin, Judith, 1585-1662) and who was to
survive him by 7 years. Shakespeare remained actively involved in Stratford
affairs throughout his life, even when living in London, and retired there at
the end of his career.
The years between 1585 and 1592, having left no evidence as
to Shakespeare's activities, have been the focus of considerable speculation;
among other things, conjecture would have him a traveling actor or a country
schoolmaster. The earliest surviving notice of his career in London is a
jealous attack on the "upstart crow" by Robert Greene, a playwright,
professional man of letters, and profligate whose career was at an end in 1592
though he was only 6 years older than Shakespeare. Greene's outcry testifies,
both in its passion and in the work it implies Shakespeare had been doing for
some time, that the young poet had already established himself in the capital.
So does the quality of Shakespeare's first plays: it is hard to believe that
even Shakespeare could have shown such mastery without several years of apprenticeship.
Early Career
Shakespeare's first extant play is probably The Comedy of
Errors (1590; like most dates for the plays, this is conjectural and may be
a year or two off), a brilliant and intricate farce involving two sets of
identical twins and based on two already-complicated comedies by the Roman
Plautus. Though less fully achieved, his next comedy, The Two Gentlemen of
Verona (1591), is more prophetic of Shakespeare's later comedy, for its
plot depends on such devices as a faithful girl who educates her fickle lover,
romantic woods, a girl dressed as a boy, sudden reformations, music, and happy
marriages at the end. The last of the first comedies, Love's Labour's Lost
(1593), is romantic again, dealing with the attempt of three young men to withdraw
from the world and women for 3 years to study in their king's "little
Academe," and their quick surrender to a group of young ladies who come to
lodge nearby. If the first of the comedies is most notable for its plotting and
the second for its romantic elements, the third is distinguished by its
dazzling language and its gallery of comic types. Already Shakespeare had
learned to fuse conventional characters with convincing representations of the
human life he knew.
Though little read and performed now, Shakespeare's first
plays in the popular "chronicle," or history, genre are equally
ambitious and impressive. Dealing with the tumultuous events of English history
between the death of Henry V in 1422 and the accession of Henry VII in 1485 (which
began the period of Tudor stability maintained by Shakespeare's own queen), the
three "parts" of Henry VI (1592) and Richard III (1594)
are no tentative experiments in the form: rather they constitute a gigantic
tetralogy, in which each part is a superb play individually and an integral
part of an epic sequence. Nothing so ambitious had ever been attempted in
England in a form hitherto marked by slapdash formlessness.
Shakespeare's first tragedy, Titus Andronicus (1593),
reveals similar ambition. Though its chamber of horrors— including mutilations
and ingenious murders—strikes the modern reader as belonging to a theatrical
tradition no longer viable, the play is in fact a brilliant and successful
attempt to outdo the efforts of Shakespeare's predecessors in the lurid
tradition of the revenge play.
When the theaters were closed because of plague during much
of 1593-1594, Shakespeare looked to nondramatic poetry for his support and
wrote two narrative masterpieces, the seriocomic Venus and Adonis and
the tragic Rape of Lucrece, for a wealthy patron, the Earl of
Southampton. Both poems carry the sophisticated techniques of Elizabethan
narrative verse to their highest point, drawing on the resources of Renaissance
mythological and symbolic traditions.
Shakespeare's most famous poems, probably composed in this
period but not published until 1609, and then not by the author, are the 154
sonnets, the supreme English examples of the form. Writing at the end of a
brief, frenzied vogue for sequences of sonnets, Shakespeare found in the
conventional 14-line lyric with its fixed rhyme scheme a vehicle for
inexhaustible technical innovations—for Shakespeare even more than for other
poets, the restrictive nature of the sonnet generates a paradoxical freedom of
invention that is the life of the form—and for the expression of emotions and
ideas ranging from the frivolous to the tragic. Though often suggestive of
autobiographical revelation, the sonnets cannot be proved to be any the less
fictions than the plays. The identity of their dedicatee, "Mr. W.
H.," remains a mystery, as does the question of whether there were
real-life counterparts to the famous "dark lady" and the unfaithful
friend who are the subject of a number of the poems. But the chief value of these
poems is intrinsic: the sonnets alone would have established Shakespeare's
preeminence among English poets.
Lord Chamberlain's Men
By 1594 Shakespeare was fully engaged in his career. In that
year he became principal writer for the successful Lord Chamberlain's Men—one
of the two leading companies of actors; a regular actor in the company; and a
"sharer," or partner, in the group of artist-managers who ran the
entire operation and were in 1599 to have the Globe Theater built on the south
bank of the Thames. The company performed regularly in unroofed but elaborate
theaters. Required by law to be set outside the city limits, these theaters
were the pride of London, among the first places shown to visiting foreigners,
and seated up to 3,000 people. The actors played on a huge platform stage
equipped with additional playing levels and surrounded on three sides by the
audience; the absence of scenery made possible a flow of scenes comparable to
that of the movies, and music, costumes, and ingenious stage machinery created
successful illusions under the afternoon sun.
For this company Shakespeare produced a steady outpouring of
plays. The comedies include The Taming of the Shrew (1594), fascinating
in light of the first comedies since it combines with an Italian-style plot, in
which all the action occurs in one day, a more characteristically English and
Shakespearean plot, the taming of Kate, in which much more time passes; A
Midsummer Night's Dream (1595), in which "rude mechanicals,"
artisans without imagination, become entangled with fairies and magic potions
in the moonlit woods to which young lovers have fled from a tyrannical adult
society; The Merchant of Venice (1596), which contributed Shylock and
Portia to the English literary tradition; Much Ado about Nothing (1598),
with a melodramatic main plot whose heroine is maligned and almost driven to
death by a conniving villain and a comic subplot whose Beatrice and Benedick
remain the archetypical sparring lovers; The Merry Wives of Windsor
(1599), held by tradition to have been written in response to the Queen's
request that Shakespeare write another play about Falstaff (who had appeared in
Henry IV), this time in love; and in 1600 the pastoral As You Like
It, a mature return to the woods and conventions of The Two Gentlemen of
Verona and A Midsummer Night's Dream, and Twelfth Night,
perhaps the most perfect of the comedies, a romance of identical twins
separated at sea, young love, and the antics of Malvolio and Sir Toby Belch.
Shakespeare's only tragedies of the period are among his
most familiar plays: Romeo and Juliet (1596), Julius Caesar
(1599), and Hamlet (1601). Different from one another as they are, these
three plays share some notable features: the setting of intense personal
tragedy in a large world vividly populated by what seems like the whole range
of humanity; a refusal, shared by most of Shakespeare's contemporaries in the
theater, to separate comic situations and techniques from tragic; the constant
presence of politics; and—a personal rather than a conventional phenomenon—a
tragic structure in which what is best in the protagonist is what does him in
when he finds himself in conflict with the world.
Continuing his interest in the chronicle, Shakespeare wrote
King John (1596), despite its one strong character a relatively weak play; and
the second and greater tetralogy, ranging from Richard II (1595), in
which the forceful Bolingbroke, with an ambiguous justice on his side, deposes
the weak but poetic king, through the two parts of Henry IV (1597), in
which the wonderfully amoral, fat knight Falstaff accompanies Prince Hal,
Bolingbroke's son, to Henry V (1599), in which Hal, become king, leads a
newly unified England, its civil wars temporarily at an end but sadly deprived
of Falstaff and the dissident lowlife who provided so much joy in the earlier
plays, to triumph over France. More impressively than the first tetralogy, the
second turns history into art. Spanning the poles of comedy and tragedy, alive
with a magnificent variety of unforgettable characters, linked to one another
as one great play while each is a complete and independent success in its own
right—the four plays pose disturbing and unanswerable questions about politics,
making one ponder the frequent difference between the man capable of ruling and
the man worthy of doing so, the meaning of legitimacy in office, the value of
order and stability as against the value of revolutionary change, and the
relation of private to public life. The plays are exuberant works of art, but
they are not optimistic about man as a political animal, and their unblinkered
recognition of the dynamics of history has made them increasingly popular and
relevant in our own tormented era.
Three plays of the end of Elizabeth's reign are often
grouped as Shakespeare's "problem plays," though no definition of
that term is able successfully to differentiate them as an exclusive group. All's
Well That Ends Well (1602) is a romantic comedy with qualities that seem
bitter to many critics; like other plays of the period, by Shakespeare and by
his contemporaries, it presents sexual relations between men and women in a
harsh light. Troilus and Cressida (1602), hardest of the plays to
classify generically, is a brilliant, sardonic, and disillusioned piece on the
Trojan War, unusually philosophical in its language and reminiscent in some
ways of Hamlet. The tragicomic Measure for Measure (1604) focuses
more on sexual problems than any other play in the canon; Angelo, the
puritanical and repressed man of ice who succumbs to violent sexual urges the
moment he is put in temporary authority over Vienna during the duke's absence,
and Isabella, the victim of his lust, are two of the most interesting characters
in Shakespeare, and the bawdy city in which the action occurs suggests a London
on which a new mood of modern urban hopelessness is settling.
King's Men
Promptly upon his accession in 1603, King James I, more
ardently attracted to theatrical art than his predecessor, bestowed his
patronage upon the Lord Chamberlain's Men, so that the flag of the King's Men
now flew over the Globe. During his last decade in the theater Shakespeare was
to write fewer but perhaps even finer plays. Almost all the greatest tragedies
belong to this period. Though they share the qualities of the earlier
tragedies, taken as a group they manifest new tendencies. The heroes are
dominated by passions that make their moral status increasingly ambiguous,
their freedom increasingly circumscribed; similarly the society, even the
cosmos, against which they strive suggests less than ever that all can ever be
right in the world. As before, what destroys the hero is what is best about
him, yet the best in Macbeth or Othello cannot so simply be commended as
Romeo's impetuous ardor or Brutus's political idealism (fatuous though it is).
The late tragedies are each in its own way dramas of alienation, and their
focus, like that of the histories, continues to be felt as intensely relevant
to the concerns of modern men.
Othello (1604) is
concerned, like other plays of the period, with sexual impurity, with the
difference that that impurity is the fantasy of the protagonist about his
faithful wife. Iago, the villain who drives Othello to doubt and murder, is the
culmination of two distinct traditions, the "Machiavellian" conniver
who uses deceit in order to subvert the order of the polity, and the Vice, a
schizophrenically tragicomic devil figure from the morality plays going out of
fashion as Shakespeare grew up. King Lear (1605), to many Shakespeare's
masterpiece, is an agonizing tragic version of a comic play (itself based on
mythical early English history), in which an aged king who foolishly deprives
his only loving daughter of her heritage in order to leave all to her
hypocritical and vicious sisters is hounded to death by a malevolent alliance
which at times seems to include nature itself. Transformed from its
fairy-tale-like origins, the play involves its characters and audience alike in
metaphysical questions that are felt rather than thought.
Macbeth (1606),
similarly based on English chronicle material, concentrates on the problems of
evil and freedom, convincingly mingles the supernatural with a representation
of history, and makes a paradoxically sympathetic hero of a murderer who sins
against family and state—a man in some respects worse than the villain of Hamlet.
Dramatizing stories from Plutarch's Parallel Lives,
Antony and Cleopatra and Coriolanus (both written in 1607-1608)
embody Shakespeare's bitterest images of political life, the former by setting
against the call to Roman duty the temptation to liberating sexual passion, the
latter by pitting a protagonist who cannot live with hypocrisy against a
society built on it. Both of these tragedies present ancient history with a
vividness that makes it seem contemporary, though the sensuousness of Antony
and Cleopatra, the richness of its detail, the ebullience of its language,
and the seductive character of its heroine have made it far more popular than
the harsh and austere Coriolanus. One more tragedy, Timon of Athens,
similarly based on Plutarch, was written during this period, though its date is
obscure. Despite its abundant brilliance, few find it a fully satisfactory
play, and some critics have speculated that what we have may be an incomplete
draft. The handful of tragedies that Shakespeare wrote between 1604 and 1608
comprises an astonishing series of worlds different from one another, created
of language that exceeds anything Shakespeare had done before, some of the most
complex and vivid characters in all the plays, and a variety of new structural
techniques.
A final group of plays takes a turn in a new direction.
Commonly called the "romances," Pericles (1607), Cymbeline
(1609), The Winter's Tale (1611), and The Tempest (1611) share
their conventions with the tragicomedy that had been growing popular since the
early years of the century. Particularly they resemble in some respects plays
written by Beaumont and Fletcher for the private theatrical company whose
operation the King's Men took over in 1608. While such work in the hands of
others, however, tended to reflect the socially and intellectually narrow
interests of an elite audience, Shakespeare turned the fashionable mode into a
new kind of personal art form. Though less searing than the great tragedies,
these plays have a unique power to move and are in the realm of the highest
art. Pericles and Cymbeline seem somewhat tentative and
experimental, though both are superb plays. The Winter's Tale, however,
is one of Shakespeare's best plays. Like a rewriting of Othello in its
first acts, it turns miraculously into pastoral comedy in its last. The
Tempest is the most popular and perhaps the finest of the group. Prospero,
shipwrecked on an island and dominating it with magic which he renounces at the
end, may well be intended as an image of Shakespeare himself; in any event, the
play is like a retrospective glance over the plays of the 2 previous decades.
After the composition of The Tempest, which many
regard as an explicit farewell to art, Shakespeare retired to Stratford,
returning to London to compose Henry VIII and The Two Noble Kinsmen
in 1613; neither of these plays seems to have fired his imagination. In 1616,
at the age of 52, he was dead. His reputation grew quickly, and his work has
continued to seem to each generation like its own most precious discovery. His
value to his own age is suggested by the fact that two fellow actors performed
the virtually unprecedented act in 1623 of gathering his plays together and
publishing them in the Folio edition. Without their efforts, since Shakespeare
was apparently not interested in publication, many of the plays would not have
survivedز
Qutation
