المدرسة التقليدية
Management schools
Modern managers use many of the practices, principles, and
techniques developed from earlier concepts and experiences. The
Industrial Revolution brought about the emergence of large-scale business and
its need for professional managers. Early military and church
organizations provided the leadership models.
In 1975, Raymond E. Miles wrote Theories of Management:
Implications for Organizational Behavior and Development published by
McGraw Hill Text. In it, he popularized a useful model of the evolution of
management theory in the
Behavioral
or human relations management emerged in the 1920s and dealt with the
human aspects of organizations. It has been referred to as the neoclassical
school because it was initially a reaction to the shortcomings of the classical
approaches to management. The human relations movement began with the Hawthorne
Studies which were conducted from 1924 to 1933 at the Hawthorne Plant of the
Western Electric Company in
The
Harvard
Business School researchers, T.N. Whitehead, Elton Mayo, and George Homans,
were led by Fritz Roethlisberger. Elton Mayo, known as the Father of the
Hawthorne Studies, identified the Hawthorne Effect or the bias that
occurs when people know that they are being studied. The Hawthorne Studies are
significant because they demonstrated the important influence of human factors
on worker productivity.
There
were four major phases to the Hawthorne Studies: the illumination experiments,
the relay assembly group experiments, the interviewing program, and the bank
wiring group studies. The intent of these studies was to determine the effect
of working conditions on productivity. The illumination experiments tried to
determine whether better lighting would lead to increased productivity. Both
the control group and the experimental group of female employees produced more
whether the lights were turned up or down. It was discovered that this
increased productivity was a result of the attention received by the group. In
the relay assembly group experiments, six female employees worked in a special,
separate area; were given breaks and had the freedom to talk; and were
continuously observed by a researcher who served as the supervisor. The
supervisor consulted the employees prior to any change. The bank wiring group
studies were analyzed thoroughly by Homans and were included in his now classic
book, The Human Group. The bank wiring groups involved fourteen male
employees and were similar to the relay assembly group experiments, except that
there was no change of supervision. Again, in the relay and bank wiring phases,
productivity increased and was attributed to group dynamics. The conclusion was
that there was no cause-and-effect relationship between working conditions and
productivity. Worker attitude was found to be important. An extensive employee
interviewing program of 21,000 interviews was conducted to determine employee
attitudes toward the company and their jobs. As a major outcome of these
interviews, supervisors learned that an employee's complaint frequently is a
symptom of some underlying problem on the job, at home, or in the person's
past.
When Chester
Barnard retired as the CEO of New Jersey Bell Telephone, he recorded his
insights about management in his book, Functions of the Executive. It
outlined the legitimacy of the supervisor's directives and the extent of the
subordinates' acceptance. He developed the concepts of strategic planning and
the acceptance theory of authority. Strategic planning is the formulation of
major plans or strategies, which guide the organization in pursuit of major
objectives. Barnard taught that the three top functions of the executive were
to (l) establish and maintain an effective communication system, (2) hire and
retain effective personnel, and (3) motivate those personnel. His Acceptance
Theory of Authority states that managers only have as much authority
as employees allow them to have. The acceptance theory of authority suggests
that authority flows downward but depends on acceptance by the subordinate. The
acceptance of authority depends on four conditions. (1.) Employees must understand
what the manager wants them to do. (2.) Employees must be able to comply with
the directive. (3.) Employees must think that the directive is in keeping with
organizational objectives. (4.) Employees must think that the directive is not
contrary to their personal goals. Barnard believed that each person has a zone
of indifference or a range within each individual in which he or she would
willingly accept orders without consciously questioning authority. It was up to
the organization to provide sufficient inducements to broaden each employee's
zone of indifference so that the manager's orders would be obeyed.
الملفات المرفقة
- المرسة التقليدية (Management schools.doc - B)
